Plan
Comptes Rendus

External geophysics, climate and environment (Climate and palaeoclimate)
δ13C variation of soil organic matter as an indicator of vegetation change during the Holocene in central Cameroon
[Variation du δ13C de la matière organique des sols comme marqueur des changements de végétation au cours de l’Holocène au centre du Cameroun]
Comptes Rendus. Géoscience, Volume 345 (2013) no. 7-8, pp. 266-271.

Résumés

In order to better understand the dynamics of the forest–savanna mosaic from central Cameroon, we analyzed 13C and 14C profiles of six oxisols: two under forests and four under savannas. The δ13C soil profiles collected in the forests indicate that these environments are stable at least since the mid-Holocene, whereas the areas currently covered by savannas were formerly occupied by more forested vegetations. The 14C dating of organic matter indicate that the late extension of the savannas in central Cameroon date from the Late Holocene, starting from 4000–3500 14C yr BP.

Afin de mieux comprendre la dynamique de la mosaïque forêt–savane du centre du Cameroun, nous avons analysé les profils isotopiques 13C et 14C de six oxisols: deux sous forêt et quatre sous savane. Les profils de δ13C des sols sous forêts indiquent la permanence de ce couvert végétal depuis au moins le milieu de l’Holocène, alors que les sols couverts actuellement par de la savane étaient auparavant occupés par une végétation plus boisée. La datation 14C de la matière organique montre que l’extension des savanes du centre du Cameroun date de l’Holocène supérieur et n’a débuté que vers 4000–3500 14C an BP.

Métadonnées
Reçu le :
Accepté le :
Publié le :
DOI : 10.1016/j.crte.2013.06.001
Keywords: Central Africa, Semi-deciduous tropical forest, Savanna, 14C, Paleoenvironments
Mot clés : Afrique centrale, Forêt tropicale semi-décidue, Savane, Matière organique du sol, 14C, Paléo-environnements

Thierry Desjardins 1 ; Bruno Turcq 2 ; Jean-Pierre Nguetnkam 3 ; Gaston Achoundong 4 ; Magloire Mandeng-Yogo 2 ; Fethyé Cetin 2 ; Anne-Marie Lézine 5

1 BIOEMCO, Biologie et écologie des milieux continentaux (UPMC–CNRS–INRA–ENS–UPEC–IRD–AgroParisTech), Centre IRD France Nord, 32, avenue Henri-Varagnat, 93143 Bondy cedex, France
2 IRD–LOCEAN Laboratoire d’océanographie et du climat: expérimentations et analyses numériques (UPMC/CNRS/IRD/MNHN), Centre IRD France Nord, 32, avenue Henri-Varagnat, 93143 Bondy cedex, France
3 Université de Ngaoundéré, faculté des sciences, département des sciences de la Terre, Ngaoundéré, Cameroon
4 Herbier National du Cameroun, Yaoundé, Cameroon
5 CNRS–LOCEAN Laboratoire d’océanographie et du climat: expérimentations et analyses numériques (UPMC/CNRS/IRD/MNHN), boîte 100, 4, place Jussieu, 75252 Paris cedex 05, France
@article{CRGEOS_2013__345_7-8_266_0,
     author = {Thierry Desjardins and Bruno Turcq and Jean-Pierre Nguetnkam and Gaston Achoundong and Magloire Mandeng-Yogo and Fethy\'e Cetin and Anne-Marie L\'ezine},
     title = {\protect\emph{\ensuremath{\delta}}\protect\textsuperscript{13}C variation of soil organic matter as an indicator of vegetation change during the {Holocene} in central {Cameroon}},
     journal = {Comptes Rendus. G\'eoscience},
     pages = {266--271},
     publisher = {Elsevier},
     volume = {345},
     number = {7-8},
     year = {2013},
     doi = {10.1016/j.crte.2013.06.001},
     language = {en},
}
TY  - JOUR
AU  - Thierry Desjardins
AU  - Bruno Turcq
AU  - Jean-Pierre Nguetnkam
AU  - Gaston Achoundong
AU  - Magloire Mandeng-Yogo
AU  - Fethyé Cetin
AU  - Anne-Marie Lézine
TI  - δ13C variation of soil organic matter as an indicator of vegetation change during the Holocene in central Cameroon
JO  - Comptes Rendus. Géoscience
PY  - 2013
SP  - 266
EP  - 271
VL  - 345
IS  - 7-8
PB  - Elsevier
DO  - 10.1016/j.crte.2013.06.001
LA  - en
ID  - CRGEOS_2013__345_7-8_266_0
ER  - 
%0 Journal Article
%A Thierry Desjardins
%A Bruno Turcq
%A Jean-Pierre Nguetnkam
%A Gaston Achoundong
%A Magloire Mandeng-Yogo
%A Fethyé Cetin
%A Anne-Marie Lézine
%T δ13C variation of soil organic matter as an indicator of vegetation change during the Holocene in central Cameroon
%J Comptes Rendus. Géoscience
%D 2013
%P 266-271
%V 345
%N 7-8
%I Elsevier
%R 10.1016/j.crte.2013.06.001
%G en
%F CRGEOS_2013__345_7-8_266_0
Thierry Desjardins; Bruno Turcq; Jean-Pierre Nguetnkam; Gaston Achoundong; Magloire Mandeng-Yogo; Fethyé Cetin; Anne-Marie Lézine. δ13C variation of soil organic matter as an indicator of vegetation change during the Holocene in central Cameroon. Comptes Rendus. Géoscience, Volume 345 (2013) no. 7-8, pp. 266-271. doi : 10.1016/j.crte.2013.06.001. https://comptes-rendus.academie-sciences.fr/geoscience/articles/10.1016/j.crte.2013.06.001/

Version originale du texte intégral

1 Introduction

In Equatorial Africa, the edge of the evergreen forest massif consists of a mosaic of semi-deciduous forests and savannas. Savannas also occur within the forest massif in small patches but also, as in the Bateke plateaus in Congo, over wide areas. The origins of these open landscapes, which occur under present-day equatorial climate mostly suitable for forest presence, are still a matter of debate (Bayon et al., 2012). Isotope analyses on soil organic matter are widely used to discriminate between C3 (mostly forests) and C4 (mostly savannas) vegetation through δ13C measurements and thus are powerful tools to reconstruct the history of these former landscapes (Boutton, 1996). Although based on a few sites, the soil profiles from Congo (Schwartz, 1997; Schwartz et al., 1992) and Gabon (Delègue et al., 2001) recorded large-scale environmental changes in relation with the Late Quaternary climatic succession in specific areas of the Atlantic Coast and the Bateke Plateaus.

As soon as the late fifties, Bachelier et al. (1957) studied soils from the savanna–forest mosaic from the lowlands of central Cameroon. They concluded that the anthropogenic activities and mainly repeated burnings were responsible for the recent opening up of the forest. However, Youta Happi (1998) and Guillet et al. (2001) showed that the forest has been currently expanding since, at least, the last decades.

In this article, we present isotope analyses on six soil profiles recovered in central Cameroon along a south-north transect from Abong Mbang to the southeast (3°50′N–13°20′E) and Ngambe Tikar to the north-west (5°40′N–11°40′E), in an area where the lack of lacustrine or swamp deposits hampers our understanding of past environmental changes. The goal of our study is to discuss the changes in forest extents during the recent past, particularly at the age of the Late Holocene forest crisis evidenced throughout central Africa (Vincens et al., 1999). These changes are thought to have strongly influenced the local populations (Bayon et al., 2012; Verdu et al., 2009).

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Soil profile location

Two soil profiles were taken in semi-deciduous Sterculiaceae/Ulmaceae forests (at Abong Mbang and Ngambe Tikar) and four profiles were taken in savannas (at Ndjolé, Sangbé, Maboen, and Nditam) (Fig. 1). The savannas are of Guineo-Congolian phytogeographical type (White, 1983) and are characterized by tall grasses, mainly Hyparrhenia sp. with shrubs and trees. (Lophira lanceolata, Annona senegalensis, Bridelia ferruginea, Bauhinia thonningii, Terminalia sp.). All the studied soils were located in the highest part of the relief, and classified as oxisols, with texture varying from clayey to sandy-loamy.

Fig. 1

Location map of the study sites. The simplified vegetation map is from Guillaumet et al. (2009).

Carte de localisation des sites étudiés. La carte de végétation simplifiée est reprise de Guillaumet et al. (2009).

2.2 Soil sampling

Soils were sampled using a 6-cm-diameter auger, to a depth of 390 cm, at 10-cm intervals between the surface and 50 cm, and at 20-cm intervals from 50 cm to the bottom. The soil samples were air-dried, sieved with a 2-mm mesh, homogenized and ground to < 200 μm. The forest and savanna core sites were chosen in low declivity zones, within undisturbed vegetation apart from the present savanna–forest boundary.

2.3 Stable isotope analyses

Since C3 plants (the dominant plants in forests) and C4 plants (the dominant plants in savannas) are isotopically distinct, it is possible to detect shifts from tropical forests to grasslands (or vice versa) from the δ13C signature of organic matter in soils (Desjardins et al., 1996; Mariotti, 1991; Runge, 2002; Sanaiotti et al., 2002; Schwartz et al., 1996).

The isotopic ratio (R = 13C/12C) is reported in standard delta notation (δ13C), defined as parts per thousand (‰) deviation from a standard (Vienna Pee Dee Belemnite) (Peterson and Fry, 1987):

The samples were air-dried and sieved at 2 mm. Aliquots of these samples were ground at 70 meshes and submitted to an acid attack by HCl 10%. The samples were combusted in an elemental analyzer (Costech) for carbon content analysis. δ13C was measured on a continuous-flow gas-ratio mass spectrometer (Finnigan Delta PlusXL) coupled with the elemental analyzer. Standardization is based on acetanilide for elemental concentration, NBS-22 and USGS-24 for δ13C. Precision is better than ± 0.10‰ for δ13C, based on repeated internal standards.

2.4 Radiocarbon dating

The radiocarbon measurements performed on the bulk soil organic matter represent a mixture of younger and older carbon pools whose residence time is increasing with depth and consequently do not correspond to the absolute age of soil organic matter (Guillet et al., 2001; Schwartz et al., 1996). As a consequence, the temporal resolution of past vegetation changes is low and must be interpreted with caution (Boutton et al., 1998; Trumbore et al., 1995; Wiedemeier et al., 2012). In addition, the calibration of 14C ages does not make sense for soil samples. For an easier comparison with earlier studies, 14C values are expressed in 14C yr BP (apparent age according to Guillet et al., 2001). AMS 14C measurements were performed on bulk soil organic matter samples with a 3 MV Pelletron (NEC, Middleton, Wisconsin, USA). The sample pre-treatment was the same as for the other analysis.

3 Results

3.1 Total organic carbon content

The six studied profiles showed a relatively similar distribution of organic carbon with depth (Fig. 2). In the surface (0–10 cm) layer, the organic carbon (C) content ranges from 18.8 to 27.9 mg·g−1. Then, the C content decreases abruptly until the 60–70-cm level, without evidence of any organic paleohorizon: at this depth, the C content ranges from 4.7 to 10.3 mg·g−1. Below this level, the C content decreases slightly to reach 1.6 to 4.1 mg·g−1 at 380–390-cm depth.

Fig. 2

Variation with depth of the total carbon content for the six studied soil profiles (circles represent forest profiles and squares represent savanna profiles).

Variation de la teneur en carbone total en fonction de la profondeur pour les six profils de sol étudiés (les cercles représentent les profils de forêt et les carrés les profils de savane).

3.2 Depth variability in δ13C values of soil organic matter

Soil profiles from semi-deciduous forests (Fig. 3) show a typical δ13C pattern with values ranging from –28.4 to –26.9‰ at the surface, an increase of about 2‰ in the sub-surface levels between 10 and 30 cm, and then a slight increase until values ranging from −23 to −25.4‰ between 200 and 390 cm.

Fig. 3

Variation of δ13C values with depth in the studied soil profiles (circles represent forest profiles and squares represent savanna profiles).

Variation du δ13C en fonction de la profondeur dans les profils étudiés (les cercles représentent les profils de forêt et les carrés les profils de savane).

δ13C values range from a minimum of −16.4 to a maximum of −13.9‰ in the surface layer from the savanna sites (Ndjolé, Sangbé, Maboen, Nditam). An increase of 1.4 to 1.6‰ is observed at the uppermost decimeters, with a maximum recorded at 20–30 or 30–40 cm (Fig. 3). Downward, a pronounced decrease is recorded, with δ13C values falling to −19.1 and −17.6‰ at 120–130 cm. Two of these profiles record a stabilization of the 13C values between 120–130 cm and 380–390 cm (at Sangbé, between −17.6 and 19.8‰, and at Maboen, between −17.2 and −18.2‰), while in the two other sites (Ndjolé and Nditam), the δ13C values decrease progressively until −21.9 and −22.3‰ at 360–370 cm.

3.3 14C dating of soil organic matter

As the incorporation of carbon fixed from the atmosphere since atomic weapons testing in the early 1960s, which nearly doubled the amount of 14C in the atmosphere, high values of radiocarbon (> 100% of the modern carbon) are generally found in the surface soil layers. No dating of surface layers was realized. However, even at the 20–30-cm level, three profiles show a modern 14C signature and the three other ages vary between 180 and 485 14C yr B.P (Table 1). Below this level, the radiocarbon ages increase downward at different rates: at 400-cm depth, Abong Mbang and Ndjolé profiles record radiocarbon ages of 3900–4050 14C yr BP, whereas ages from the other profiles are older and range from 5900 to 7000 14C yr BP. There is no differentiation between the forest and savanna profiles.

Table 1

14C de la matière organique du sol dans les six profils, exprimé en pourcentage de carbone moderne (pMC) et en âge radiocarbone conventionnel en années (non calibré).

Abong Mbang
CAM-10-2-07
Forest
3°49′52,6′′N
13°19′53,9′′E
Ngambe Tikar
CAM-10-2-17
Forest
5°39′01,6′′N
11°28′58,0′′E
Ndjolé
CAM-10-2-09
Savanna
4°51′09,4′′N
11°58′35,9′′E
Sangbé
CAM-10-2-10
Savanna
5°59′16,3′′N
12°23′35,0′′E
Maboen
CAM-10-2-14
Savanna
5°35′04,8′′N
11°50′25,7′′E
Nditam
CAM-10-2-18
Savanna
5°27′06,1′′N
11°22′06,8′′E
Depth (cm) pMC Radiocarbon age BP pMC Radiocarbon age BP pMC Radiocarbon age BP pMC Radiocarbon age BP pMC Radiocarbon age BP pMC Radiocarbon age BP
20–30 94.16 485 97.80 180 100.30 Modern 101.17 Modern 10.14 Modern 94.88 420
80–90 84.12 1390 85.20 1285 83.70 1430 84.09 1390 73.06 2520 78.61 1935
160–170 75.52 2255 77.21 2080 75.54 2255 65.71 3375 56.80 4540 63.44 3655
260–270 64.47 3525 46.33* 6180* 57.66 4425 46.40 6165 48.63 5790
380–390 60.56 4030 45.44 6335 61.49** 3905** 47.78 5930 42.18 6935 44.16 6565

* 280–290 cm.

** 360–370 cm.

4 Discussion

As far as the total carbon content is concerned, no significant difference is observed between the forest and savanna soils. Our results show similar carbon content and distribution compared to other African oxisols with clayey or median texture (Brunet et al., 2007). Total carbon decreases in an exponential manner (Bennema, 1974).

Desjardins et al. (1991), Martinelli et al. (1996), Gouveia et al. (1997) and Pessenda et al. (1998) among others have already observed that the δ13C of soil organic matter increases with depth in forest profiles. It is accepted that a 3.5–4.0‰ isotopic enrichment is due to mineralization and humification decomposition processes (Desjardins et al., 1996; Mariotti and Petershmitt, 1994; Martinelli et al., 1996). The δ13C values observed in the forest soil profiles of Abong Mbang and Ngambe Tikar lie within the range of expected values for soils where C3 plants have remained the dominant vegetation cover over time. Similar values have been recorded by Schwartz et al. (1992) and Guillet et al. (2000, 2001) in stable forests from Central Africa.

The δ13C values measured in the upper layers of the savanna profiles are typical of C4-dominated vegetation. They closely match values from savannas already encountered in Gabon, Congo and Cameroon by Delègue et al. (2001), Schwartz et al. (1992), Schwartz (1997) and Guillet et al. (2001) (−12 to −17‰). At these later sites, the δ13C values changed from −22 to −24‰ between 2 m and 4 m depth, reflecting, according to the authors, the presence of an organic matter inherited from former C3-dominated vegetation. In our savanna profiles of Ndjolé and Nditam, quite similar δ13C trends are observed, with values reaching from −21 to −22‰ at the bottom of the profiles. Although these values are slightly less negative than those observed by Delègue et al. (2001), Schwartz et al. (1992), and Schwartz (1997), they likely reflect dominant C3 vegetation. The savanna sites of Sangbé and Maboen show a strong decrease in δ13C values between 30 and 130 cm. However, the δ13C values stabilize downward, around −18 to −20‰ and −17 to −18‰, respectively, which testify the former presence of mixed vegetation with C3 plants and C4 plants. These intermediate δ13C values are not reported in the literature and, to our knowledge, no corresponding vegetation landscape exists in central Africa today, except at a single site, located at the forest–savanna boundary at Kandara (Guillet et al., 2001). Schwartz (1991) and Guillet et al. (2001), also suggested, based on almost similar δ13C values, the presence of a savanna more densely forested than today. Similar 13C values from −19.7 to −20.5‰ were also recorded between 0 and 2 m depth in the southeastern region of Brazil, on a native Cerrado vegetation site (Wilcke and Lilienfein, 2004). This Cerrado is grassland with up to 40% cover of 3 to 5 m tall trees.

Another interpretation of such δ13C values has been proposed by Schwartz (1991): they could represent an average δ13C from different vegetation types, which have succeeded over time in relation with paleoclimatic fluctuations.

The age distribution of the analyzed organic matter is not significantly different from those reported in central Atlantic Africa. In Gabon, Delègue et al. (2001) mentioned a mean age of 4200 14C yr BP at 180 cm. In Cameroon, Guillet et al. (2001) mentioned a mean age of 2640 and 4855 14C yr BP at 200 cm and Schwartz et al. (1992) mentioned ages slightly older: 6960 14C yr BP at 200 cm and 8300 14C yr BP cm at 300 cm in Congo.

Because of the heterochrony of the soil organic matter, these mean ages do not indicate directly the age of vegetation changes. However, they give an indication of the timing of such changes (Sanaiotti et al., 2002). Based on our 14C data, we can deduce that the extension of savannas in central Cameroon did not begin before the Late Holocene (ca 4000–3500 14C yr BP). This is in agreement with pollen studies, which record the collapse of the forest massif from 3300 to 2400 cal yr BP (Lézine et al., 2013 this volume and reference therein). Further north in the Adamaoua region, Vincens et al. (2010) showed that the semi-deciduous forest begun to decline earlier at 6000 cal BP.

At Ndjolé and Nditam, the δ13C profiles indicate that the former vegetation was a forest of semi-deciduous type, which was present at the Early to Middle Holocene. Differently, at this time, the isotopic values at Sangbé and Maboen show a more complex landscape formed by a mixture of C3 and C4 plants.

5 Conclusion

We obtained for the first time Holocene paleoenvironmental data in the savanna–forest mosaic zone of central Cameroon. Our results indicate that this modern landscape is mostly inherited from the last environmental crisis, which led to a widespread forest collapse in the Atlantic Equatorial Africa at the end of the African Humid Period 4000–3500 years ago. A stable environment is recorded in the present-day forests of Ngambe Tikar and Abong Mbang. The savannas soil profiles display a more complicated picture with δ13C values pointing to specific environmental conditions which are not known today: either densely forested grasslands or an alternation of successive savanna–forests phases at the sample sites. More profiles are required to understand better this history.

Acknowledgments

This study has been carried out in the frame of C3A project (ANR 09-PEXT-0). We thank the IRD representation at Yaoundé (Cameroon), René Tsiquia and Valentin Angoni for their assistance in the field. We are grateful to the Laboratoire de mesure du carbone 14 (LMC14)–UMS 2572 for AMS dating and to NSF Arizona for carbon and δ13C data. TD, BT, MMY, FC are funded by IRD, AML by CNRS, JPN by Ngaoundéré University and GA by the National Herbarium of Yaoundé.


Bibliographie

[Bachelier et al., 1957] G. Bachelier; M. Curis; D. Martin Les sols de savane du Sud Cameroun, Bull. Instit. Etud. Centrafricaines, Volume 13–14 (1957), pp. 7-27

[Bayon et al., 2012] G. Bayon; B. Dennielou; J. Etoubleau; S. Ponzevera; S. Toucanne; S. Bermell Intensifying weathering and land use in Iron Age central Africa, Science, Volume 335 (2012), pp. 1219-1222

[Bennema, 1974] J. Bennema Organic carbon profiles in oxisols, Pedologie, Volume 24 (1974), pp. 119-146

[Boutton, 1996] T.W. Boutton Stable carbon isotope of soil organic matter and their use as indicators of vegetation and climatic change (T.W. Boutton; S.I. Yamasaki, eds.), Mass Spectrometry of Soils, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1996, pp. 47-82

[Boutton et al., 1998] T.W. Boutton; S.R. Archer; A.J. Midwood; S.F. Zitzer; R. Bol δ13C values of soil organic carbon and their use in documenting change in a subtropical savanna ecosystem, Geoderma, Volume 82 (1998), pp. 5-41

[Brunet et al., 2007] D. Brunet; B.G. Barthès; J.-L. Chotte; C. Feller Determination of carbon and nitrogen contents in alfisols, oxisols and ultisols from Africa and Brazil using NIRS analysis: effects of sample grinding and set heterogeneity, Geoderma, Volume 139 (2007), pp. 106-117

[Delègue et al., 2001] M.-A. Delègue; M. Fuhr; D. Schwartz; A. Mariotti; R. Nasi Recent origin of a large part of the forest cover in the Gabon coastal area based on stable carbon isotope data, Oecologia, Volume 129 (2001), pp. 106-113

[Desjardins et al., 1991] T. Desjardins; B. Volkoff; F. Andreux; C.C. Cerri Distribution du carbone total et de l’isotope 13C dans des sols ferrallitiques du Brésil, Sci. Sol., Volume 29 (1991), pp. 175-187

[Desjardins et al., 1996] T. Desjardins; A. Carneiro Filho; A. Mariotti; A. Chauvel; C. Girardin Changes of the forest-savanna boundary in Brazilian Amazonia during the Holocene revealed by stable isotope ratios of soil organic matter, Oecologia, Volume 108 (1996), pp. 749-756

[Gouveia et al., 1997] S.E.M. Gouveia; L.C.R. Pessenda; R. Aravena; R. Boulet; R. Roveratti; B.M. Gomes Dinâmica de vegetações recentes no sul do Amazonas, indicadas pelos isotopos do carbono (12C, 13C, 14C) do solo, Geochim. Bras., Volume 11 (1997), pp. 355-367

[Guillaumet et al., 2009] J.-L. Guillaumet; H. Chevillotte; C. Valton Les forêts tropicales humides africaines Carte, échelle 1:6000 000, format 115 × 75 cm, IRD, Marseille, France, 2009

[Guillet et al., 2001] B. Guillet; G. Achoundong; J.Y. Happi; V.K.B. Kamgang; J. Bonvallot; B. Riera; A. Mariotti; D. Schwartz Agreement between floristic and soil organic carbon isotope (I3C/12C/14C) indicators of forest invasion of savannas during the last century in Cameroon, J. Trop. Ecol., Volume 17 (2001), pp. 809-832

[Guillet et al., 2000] B. Guillet; O. Maman; G. Achoundong; A. Mariotti; C. Girardin; D. Schwartz; J. Youta Happi Evidences isotopiques et géochimiques de l’avancée de la forêt sur la savane au Camùeroun (M. Servant; S. Servant-Vildary, eds.), Dynamique à long terme de la forêt tropivale, IRD, Paris, France, 2000, pp. 169-174

[Lézine et al., 2013] A.-M. Lézine; A.F.C. Holl; J. Lebamba; A. Vincens; C. Assi-Khaudjis; L. Février; E. Sultan Central African forests, human populations and climate during the Holocene, C. R. Geoscience (2013), p. 345 ([this volume])

[Mariotti, 1991] A. Mariotti Le carbone 13 en abondance naturelle, traceur de la dynamique de la matière organique des sols et de l’évolution des paléoenvironnements continentaux, Cah. Orstom, ser. Pedol., Volume XXVI (1991), pp. 299-313

[Mariotti and Petershmitt, 1994] A. Mariotti; E. Petershmitt Forest savanna ecotone dynamics in India as revealed by carbon isotope ratios of soil organic matter, Oecologia, Volume 97 (1994), pp. 475-480

[Martinelli et al., 1996] L.A. Martinelli; L.C.R. Pessenda; E. Espinoza; P.B. Carmargo; E.C. Telles; C.C. Cerri; R.L. Victoria; R. Aravena; J. Richey; S. Trumbore Carbon-13 depth variation in soils of Brazil and relations with climate changes during the Quaternary, Oecologia, Volume 106 (1996), pp. 376-381

[Pessenda et al., 1998] L.C.R. Pessenda; S.E.M. Gouveia; R. Aravena; B.M. Gomes; R. Boulet; A.S. Ribeiro C-14 dating and stable carbon isotopes of soil organic matter in forest-savanna boundary areas in the southern Brazilian Amazon region, Radiocarbon, Volume 40 (1998), pp. 1013-1022

[Peterson and Fry, 1987] B.J. Peterson; B. Fry Stable isotopes in ecosystem studies, Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst., Volume 18 (1987), pp. 293-320

[Runge, 2002] J. Runge Holocene landscape history and palaeohydrology evidenced by stable carbon isotope (δ 13C) analysis of alluvial sediments in the Mbari valley (5°N/23°E), Central African Republic, Catena, Volume 48 (2002), pp. 67-87

[Sanaiotti et al., 2002] T.M. Sanaiotti; L.A. Martinelli; R.L. Victoria; S.E. Trumbore; P.B. Camargo Past Vegetation changes in Amazon savannas determined using carbon isotopes of soil organic matter, Biotropica, Volume 34 (2002), pp. 2-16

[Schwartz, 1991] D. Schwartz Intérêt de la mesure du 13C des sols en milieu naturel équatorial pour la connaissance des aspects pédologiques et écologiques des relations savane-forêt. Exemples du Congo, Cah. Orstom, ser. Pedol., Volume XXVI (1991) no. 4, pp. 327-341

[Schwartz, 1997] D. Schwartz, Volume 6, Lettre PIGB-PMRE, France (1997), pp. 14-22

[Schwartz et al., 1996] D. Schwartz; H. de Foresta; A. Mariotti; J. Balesdent; J.P. Massimba; C.C. Girardin Present dynamics of the savanna-forest boundary in the Congolese Mayombe: a pedological, botanical and isotopic (l3C and 14C) study, Oecologia, Volume 106 (1996), pp. 516-524

[Schwartz et al., 1992] D. Schwartz; A. Mariotti; C. Trouvé; K. Van den Borg; B. Guillet Étude des profils isotopiques 13C et 14C d’un sol ferrallitique sableux du littoral congolais. Implications sur la dynamique de la matière organique et l’histoire de la végétation, C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, Ser. II, Volume 315 (1992), pp. 1411-1417

[Trumbore et al., 1995] S.E. Trumbore; E.A. Davidson; P.B. Camargo; D.C. Nepstad; L.A. Martinelli Below-ground cycling of carbon in forests and pastures of eastern Amazonia, Global Biogeochem. Cy., Volume 9 (1995), pp. 15-528

[Verdu et al., 2009] P. Verdu; F. Austerlitz; A. Estoup; R. Vitalis; M. Georges; S. Théri; A. Froment; S. Le Bomin; A. Gessain; G.-M. Hombert; L. Van der Veen; L. Quintana-Murci; S. Bahuchet; E. Heyer Origins and genetic diversity of pygmy hunter-gatherers from western central Africa, Curr. Biol., Volume 19 (2009), pp. 312-318

[Vincens et al., 2010] A. Vincens; G. Buchet; M. Servant; ECOFIT. Mbalang Collaborators Vegetation response to the “African Humid Period” termination in central Cameroon (7 degrees N) - new pollen insight from Lake Mbalang, Clim. Past, Volume 6 (2010), pp. 281-294

[Vincens et al., 1999] A. Vincens; D. Schwartz; H. Elenga; I. Reynaud-Farrera; A. Alexandre; J. Bertaux; A. Mariotti; L. Martin; J.D. Meunier; F. Nguetsop; M. Servant; S. Servant-Vildary; D. Wirrmann Forest response to climate changes in Atlantic Equatorial Africa during the last 4000 years BP and inheritance on the modern landscapes, J. Biogeogr., Volume 26 (1999), pp. 879-885

[White, 1983] F. White The vegetation of Africa. UNESCO, Nat. Resour. Res., Volume 20 (1983), pp. 1-356

[Wiedemeier et al., 2012] D.B. Wiedemeier; U. Bloesch; F. Hagedorn Stable forest–savanna mosaic in northwestern Tanzania: local-scale evidence from δ13C signatures and 14C ages of soil fractions, J. Biogeogr., Volume 39 (2012), pp. 247-257

[Wilcke and Lilienfein, 2004] W. Wilcke; J. Lilienfein Soil carbon-13 natural abundance under native and managed vegetation in Brazil, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., Volume 68 (2004), pp. 827-832

[Youta Happi, 1998] J. Youta Happi, Université de Paris-Sorbonne, Paris-4 (1998), p. 237


Commentaires - Politique