1.1. Arts–sciences

Arts and sciences, though conventionally perceived as disparate domains, exhibit intriguing intersections and shared principles. This duality of creative expression and empirical inquiry has been a subject of exploration in works such as Snow’s The Two Cultures (1959) [1], which highlights the cultural and intellectual divide between the sciences and the humanities. The idea that arts and sciences complement each other finds resonance in the writings of Steven Pinker, particularly in The Blank Slate (2002) [2, 3], where he explores the interconnectedness of human nature, creativity, and scientific discovery. These works contribute to the understanding that despite apparent distinctions, arts and sciences often converge, shaping a nuanced and symbiotic relationship [4].

“Art–science alliances must benefit both sides”, declares an editorial in the 2021 edition of the journal Nature. According to a survey involving 350 researchers, 40% have already engaged in collaborative projects with artists and the remaining respondents express an interest in future collaborations [5].

The surge in collaborations between artists and scientists has never been more fruitful, marking a scientific turning point in the art world. This shift has led to a proliferation of partnerships between artists and scientists, echoing a historical relationship dating back to the Renaissance. Erwin Panofsky, the historian, noted that “many elements later categorized as ‘natural sciences’ originated in artists’ studios during this period” [6]. Artists focused on observing and accurately describing natural elements, contributing to the emergence of observational sciences like botany, zoology, and biology.

Major institutions in Arts and Sciences have since been established in the United States and Europe, such as the founding of the Center for Advanced Visual Studies (CAVS) at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1967 [7]. Artistic currents such as bioart, to which artist Eduardo Kac contributed, are no longer sufficient to characterize the development of Arts and Sciences practices, whose subjects of study have diversified considerably. In recent years, there has been a significant expansion into areas such as data visualization, virtual reality, and synthetic biology, reflecting the evolving intersections of technology, science, and artistic expression. To follow the evolution of these practices, historians prefer to rely on specialized platforms such as Leonardo/Olats [8] or to observe the many institutional schemes that offer artists residencies in research laboratories every year, reinforcing artistic and scientific cooperation as CERN does [9] or as many universities in Europe and the United States do. These residencies not only provide artists with access to cutting-edge scientific tools and methodologies but also encourage scientists to view their work through new cultural and philosophical lenses, allowing a truly interdisciplinary dialogue. Projects like Little AI illustrate how artificial intelligence (AI) and blockchain intersect to simulate natural observation [10] while Under the GAN: Quantum blends AI and generative art with quantum concepts [11]. Additionally, artists like Agoria [12] have explored the intersection of generative bioart and AI, raising questions about the scientific accuracy and artistic expression in this emerging field. As Antonio Somaini [13] analyzes, artists’ uses of AI have evolved from mere creative tools to subjects of critical exploration, tackling deeper themes such as ethics, agency, and the role of human creativity in an increasingly automated world, providing essential frameworks for understanding these interdisciplinary experiments.

In the past decade, AI has been rising in popularity as a tool and subject matter among artists. Beginning with DeepDream [14] in 2015, moving on to generative adversarial networks (GANs) [15] in 2017, and most recently text-to-image models [16] in 2021, artists such as Memo Akten, Mario Klingemann, and Sofia Crespo have been working closely with the latest AI developments, particularly with generative models, which enable artists to create new visions of the human form, nature, and abstractions. Another group of artists including Adam Harvey, Tom White, and Gretchen Andrew have been exploring the limitations of technology, investigating the essence of visual representation, hiding faces from facial recognition, and breaking the patterns of recommendation systems. What makes xSublimatio stand out in the AI-based artistic project is the choice to work with AlphaFold, a bioinformatic technology and dataset not primarily designed for artists, which makes its creative application all the more unusual in a field dominated by GANs and text-to-image models.

1.2. xSublimatio genesis

xSublimatio, by Pierre Pauze and collaborators, is articulated as the product of a dialogue among art, science, and technology. By employing scientific images resulting from collaborations between artists and researchers, it contributes to the development of objects and forms whose identity surpasses disciplinary boundaries, fostering a hybridization of knowledge.

Since 2018, artist Pierre Pauze has been exploring the chemical processes behind the emotion of love. In 2019, he produced a film titled Please Love Party, first presented at the Fresnoy—Studio national des arts contemporains (Tourcoing, France) [17]. The film depicts a scientific study wherein participants are invited to test the effectiveness of a treatment designed to induce happiness and well-being. Pauze collaborated with researchers in biology, physics, and chemistry from the University of Lille.

For the viewer, the film resembles a clinical trial: a placebo is given to the first group while the second receives the treatment resulting from the collaboration between the artist and the researchers. Laboratory images showing scientists at work intertwine with footage shot in the exhibition space. The experiment continues in a powerful musical and auditory context accompanied by a lighting system operating at a specific frequency, compelling the “guinea pigs” to dance regardless of their emotions after ingesting the substance. This film raises several questions: How can the imagination of scientific work impact the artistic process? How can the knowledge of chemists or microscopists contribute to artistic endeavors? Can a scientific experiment be conducted in a museum setting and open up to the artistic community? Lastly, how can we reconsider the concept of placebo or, in other words, the impact of scientific methods and tools on validating experiences?

xSublimatio aligns itself with these questions while expanding on the subject through digital molecules circulating on the blockchain (non-fungible tokens [NFTs]). This project brings chemistry and art together to invent new forms of collaboration through the digital visualization of molecules with the assistance of AI. NFT collectors, whether from the scientific or the artistic community, are invited to combine virtual molecules to discover formulas related to the feeling of love.

Beyond the potential discoveries that this project may yield, both artistically and scientifically, xSublimatio takes its place in the rich history of Arts and Sciences practices with multifaceted objectives: inventing new artistic forms, encouraging researchers and artists to expand their practices and inquiries, approaching a subject with alternative methodological tools, and addressing broader communities to open up research to the public.

1.3. Blockchain and crypto concepts

In the realm of xSublimatio, understanding basic blockchain and crypto concepts is paramount. In its essence, blockchain [18] is a decentralized digital ledger technology that records transactions across multiple computers in a tamper-resistant and transparent manner. Ethereum [19], a prominent blockchain platform, extends this functionality by allowing developers to build decentralized applications and smart contracts.

A key component of Ethereum-based projects like xSublimatio is the NFT [20]. Unlike cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin or Ethereum, which are fungible and can be exchanged on a one-to-one basis, NFTs are unique digital assets representing ownership or proof of authenticity of a particular item or piece of content.

Smart contracts [21], integral to Ethereum’s ecosystem, are self-executing contracts with the terms of the agreement directly written into code. They facilitate the creation, exchange, and management of NFTs representing digital molecules and drugs.

Lastly, a wallet [22] is a digital tool that allows users to store, send, and receive cryptocurrencies and NFTs securely. In the context of xSublimatio, a wallet serves as a digital container for holding NFTs representing molecules and drugs, providing users with control over their digital assets.

2.1. Generation of on-chain NFTs

xSublimatio employs the Ethereum blockchain as its platform alongside computer programs and generative AI models as image generators. The smart contract [23] serves as both an artistic and a logistical medium (the medium is the message). All necessary information related to the project’s scientific data is stored (encapsulated) within the smart contract. This includes the names of molecules, their visual properties, and the drugs that can be manufactured with them. Thus, following the doctrine “the code is law”, it is impossible to err in the compositions of drugs or to modify the compositions and rules of the game retroactively. During minting (NFT generation), the smart contract activates various processes that randomly generate a molecule, including its nature (H₂O, caffeine, etc.), shape, and aesthetic properties. Each molecule is unique with distinct color and shape traits.

The code for generating molecular shapes comes from the Processing software [24]. Processing, formerly spelled Processing, is an open-source development environment (under the GNU General Public License) created by Benjamin Fry and Casey Reas, two American artists. Processing is the multimedia extension of Design by Numbers, the graphic programming environment developed by John Maeda at the MIT Media Lab. Thus, the smart contract randomly assigns data that activates the Processing code carefully crafted by the creative coder Samuele Bonaffino. Molecular structures are .obj files in the input to the program, which processes vertices and builds the molecule, altering the structure based on the properties associated with the seed. The .obj files are obtained using the programs Avogadro and Blender. Avogadro is used to build the 3D structure of the molecules and Blender to center the origin of the 3D model.

This code assigns molecule color, background, and animating shapes, integrating scientifically accurate molecular representations into the sublimation code.

During minting, the smart contract information activates the Processing code, which requires computing power (potentially from the user’s computer performing the minting). However, in the case of the xSublimatio project, we leverage computing power from Amazon Web Services to ensure that the user experience is as fast as possible. The molecules are then available in the user’s wallet. For drug manufacturing, when multiple molecules correspond to a drug’s composition, the person who owns them in their wallet can trigger a merging action to create the protein representing the drug. The 3D structures of proteins are extracted from AlphaFold and processed through the Blender software [25].

2.2. Selection of drugs and active principles: defining numbers

We compiled a diverse range of drugs and their associated active principles, aiming for authenticity in representing molecules involved in drug effects while maintaining engaging characteristics. This included both illicit substances like cannabis, heroin, and cocaine and licit substances such as nicotine, alcohol, and medications. Stimulants like caffeine, cocaine, and amphetamines, depressants like alcohol and opioids, hallucinogens like LSD, and neuroleptics like cannabidiol (CBD) were considered. The selection process involved extensive bibliographic research to choose representative molecules, resulting in 63 unique active principles forming up to 19 drugs with a maximum of 9 different active principles. This included drugs from various origins, such as natural extracts and laboratory synthesis, as well as a distinct category for the artistic drug exemplified by the LOVE elixir developed in Pierre Pauze’s earlier production. With the variations and attributes considered, this process resulted in the creation of 5748 active ingredient NFTs and 1134 drug molecule NFTs, allowing for a potential of 1149 boosters containing 5 active ingredient NFTs each. The details are available as Supplementary Tables 1–3. To illustrate this process, here is the example of mate. We decided that a maximum of 121 mate NFTs can be created. The mate recipe comprises three active principles, two specific ones being caffeine and theobromine. Therefore, we created 121 molecules of each. Additionally, 121 water molecules were required. All these ingredients are available in booster packs of 5 NFTs and can be exchanged and destroyed to create in the end a maximum of 121 adenosine receptor molecules, which illustrate the mate drug molecule NFTs.

3.1. Selection of drugs and active principles

A crucial initial step involved compiling a list of drugs of various types along with their associated active principles. These selections had to not only reflect molecules genuinely involved in the drugs’ effects but also be engaging and playful with evocative names and visually appealing forms. Drugs encompass any substance known as psychotropic or psychoactive, disrupting the central nervous system’s functions (sensations, perceptions, moods, feelings, motor skills) or altering states of consciousness, behavior, or psychological functions [27]. The term “drugs” encompasses substances considered “illicit”, such as cannabis, heroin, and cocaine, as well as “licit” substances like nicotine, alcohol, and medications.

Among drugs, stimulants accelerate the nervous system’s functions including caffeine, cocaine, ecstasy, and amphetamines. Depressants, on the other hand, slow down functional activity and motor coordination with anxiolytic, hypnotic, and sedative effects. Well-known depressants include alcohol, opioids, and narcotics. Hallucinogens, such as LSD and hallucinogenic mushrooms (salvinorin, scopolamine, etc.), disrupt the nervous system’s functions, inducing hallucinations. Finally, neuroleptics (also known as antipsychotics), such as CBD, are medications used for their major tranquilizing and antidelirium effects. Cannabis, notably the tetrahydrocannabinol it contains, intersects with stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens, and neuroleptics.

For our study, we opted to explore a broad spectrum of drugs known to the general public, notably due to their presence in popular culture. Their nature ranges from synthetic drugs to natural extracts from mushrooms, plants, and plant mixtures. We also sought drugs from various geographical origins, including local examples like belladonna, wild lettuce, and mandrake. Extensive bibliographic research was conducted to select the most representative drug molecules. We chose to represent these drugs by one of the proteins involved in their action, based on criteria encompassing both scientific and aesthetic considerations. A concise table detailing the molecules used is available as Supplementary Tables 1–3.

In addition to being representative of effects, the project’s drugs were selected from various origins. This could be natural, with molecules extracted from a plant or fungus, in a nearly raw state or as part of a plant mixture. Otherwise, they could be synthetic, with molecules entirely synthesized in the laboratory from chemicals. Finally, a distinct class, the artistic drug, revolves around the synthesis of the LOVE elixir, a potent psychotropic love potion previously developed in Pierre Pauze’s earlier production, and that follows no scientific rules.

3.2. Choice of representation modes

A clear distinction was meticulously crafted between active principles and their associated proteins. It was imperative that each element be represented uniquely and distinctly, allowing users to readily discern the components of their creations and differentiate between active principles and final drugs.

For the active principles, a classical 3D molecular representation commonly employed in chemistry was selected (Figure 2A–B, D–E). This representation meticulously depicts each atom of the molecules, ensuring precision and clarity in visualizing molecular structures. In contrast, leveraging cutting-edge AI technologies, the project harnesses AlphaFold [28] to generate intricate models of proteins representing drugs (Figure 2C, F). This approach enables the creation of highly detailed and accurate representations, enriching the user experience and facilitating deeper insights into the molecular compositions of the drugs. The use of AlphaFold instead of more accurate experiment based 3D structures like Protein Data Bank [29, 30] and molecular dynamics [31] that provide information about atomic dynamics and conformational changes was driven by two primary objectives. First, it aimed to facilitate discussions with the general public regarding the impacts of AI on biological research. Second, this choice serves as a catalyst for engaging the public in conversations about the evolving landscape of biological research and the profound implications of AI-driven methodologies in everyday life.

3.3. Diversity and accessibility

The xSublimatio project aimed to offer users a diverse selection of active principles and drugs, ensuring inclusivity and engagement across various user demographics. This diversity encompassed a spectrum of active principles, ranging from commonly found compounds to more uncommon elements, catering to both occasional users and dedicated collectors. The selection process prioritized each ingredient’s unique attributes, ensuring that every offering within the xSublimatio platform provided an enriching and distinctive experience.

Upon selecting the NFT type, whether representing an active principle or a drug, and defining the molecule’s name, the NFT creation process unfolded on the blockchain. This process involved generating NFTs with a range of variable parameters designed to imbue each NFT with unique attributes and aesthetics. These parameters comprised seven distinct traits and four variables, each capable of assuming values of varying rarity, thereby contributing to the creation of visually captivating NFTs with varying degrees of scarcity.

Figure 3A illustrates an example of an NFT showcasing the attributes and associated representation of a water molecule. In Figure 3B, four additional iterations of water molecule NFTs showcase diverse aesthetic possibilities, each crafted with precision.

Behind the scenes, the intricate details governing NFT generation were rigorously described within the “XSublimatioHelpers.ts” file of the smart contract. This file served as the backbone of the xSublimatio ecosystem, encapsulating the algorithms and parameters that breathe life into each NFT, transforming them into unique digital assets within the blockchain.

3.4. Shaping a dynamic marketplace and conceptual paradigm

Beyond its artistic allure, xSublimatio stands as a dynamic marketplace and conceptual paradigm. Inviting NFT art collectors to engage in virtual drug synthesis, molecule trading, and market strategy, the project challenges conventional notions of value and ownership in the digital realm. As molecules transition into drugs and artworks, the project’s deflationary token system mirrors real-world resource dynamics, infusing each interaction with a sense of scarcity and transformation.

4.1. Engaging young audiences through the lens of popular culture

The TV series Breaking Bad has left an indelible mark on popular culture, particularly in its depiction of chemistry and drug synthesis. It captivated a wide range of viewers, many of whom were intrigued by the scientific aspects presented in a dramatic narrative. Drawing parallels from this, xSublimatio harnesses a similar approach by intertwining the allure of chemistry with the engaging world of art and technology. The project’s exploration of chemical processes related to human emotions, particularly love, is presented in a manner akin to the compelling storytelling found in Breaking Bad. Just as the TV show used the theme of drug synthesis to explore complex characters and narratives, xSublimatio uses the concept of synthesizing molecules related to emotions to delve into the intricate relationship among art, science, and technology. This approach adds a layer of excitement and intrigue, making the science more accessible and engaging to a younger demographic.

Furthermore, the discussion surrounding the ethical and societal implications of drug synthesis in Breaking Bad provides a platform for xSublimatio to address similar themes in a responsible and educational manner. By using the allure and controversy associated with the subject, xSublimatio can engage younger audiences in critical conversations about the role of science in society, the ethical considerations of chemical research, and the impact of scientific communication, pseudosciences, and technology on our daily lives.

It is important to note that xSublimatio is part of a broader artistic approach led by Pierre Pauze. Another major project of his, Please Love Party [17], not only explored the chemical processes behind human emotions through an experimental film but also actively involved participants in ethical considerations related to scientific practices. This project encouraged reflection on the veracity of scientific facts by inviting viewers, particularly students, to engage with a simulation where a treatment purported to induce happiness was tested. In addition to raising awareness about scientific integrity, this setting facilitated conversations around ethical dilemmas, misinformation, and the societal impact of chemical research. This context enabled discussions on topics such as fake news, the chemistry of emotions, and the nature of molecules and proteins using the provocative theme of drugs to capture attention in a playful yet educational way. This type of approach, blending science and art, is also present in xSublimatio, where digital molecules and NFTs serve as tools for accessible scientific mediation.

4.2. From aesthetics to scientific mediation

For chemists, the aesthetic dimension of xSublimatio has not only been an avenue for exploring the visual representation of molecular structures but has also references to pop culture and played a pivotal role in scientific mediation. The visual appeal of the digital molecules combined with the interactive nature of the NFT platform has provided an engaging and accessible way to communicate complex scientific concepts to a wider audience. Within the realm of xSublimatio, the molecular insights furnished by AlphaFold cascade into a novel dimension—artistic representation. AlphaFold’s predictions, typically used for scientific inquiry, are harnessed to generate visual renditions of molecules that transcend the conventional boundaries of representation. These AI-generated molecular structures serve as the foundational canvas for xSublimatio’s artistic interpretation, echoing the essence of sublimation—a transition from the scientific to the artistic and from the tangible to the transcendent. This aspect of the project underscores the importance of aesthetics in making science more approachable and understandable, thereby bridging the gap between scientific communities and the general public.

4.3. Blockchain, NFTs, and decentralized science: a new frontier

The discussions at the end of the GDR ChemBio 2023 conference ventured into the realms of blockchain technology [32, 33] and NFTs, not just as tools for artistic expression or scientific visualization but as potential catalysts for affecting the scientific ecosystem itself [34, 35]. This discourse opened up possibilities for leveraging decentralized technologies to address long-standing challenges in scientific publishing and credential verification. The concept of decentralized science (DeSci) [36] emerged as a focal point, suggesting an innovative framework where blockchain could facilitate more transparent, efficient, and accessible scientific communication. In this context, blockchain’s inherent properties of immutability and transparency were discussed as potential solutions to issues surrounding the reproducibility and validation of scientific research. The implementation of blockchain could lead to a more open and reliable system for publishing scientific findings, where results and data are easily verifiable and permanently recorded [36, 37].

Moreover, the application of NFTs within xSublimatio brought to light the potential for these digital assets to represent scientific achievements or credentials in a secure and unforgeable manner. NFTs could serve as digital certificates for academic accomplishments, research contributions, and even participation in significant scientific projects. This concept presents a novel approach to recognizing and verifying academic and professional achievements in the scientific community [38].

The discussions underscored how blockchain technology and NFTs could extend beyond their current applications, suggesting a future where decentralized systems contribute to the integrity and advancement of scientific research and education. The implications of such a shift are profound, indicating a potential transformation in how scientific knowledge is disseminated, accredited, and preserved.

4.4. AI in the spotlight: from AlphaFold to ChatGPT

The xSublimatio presentation held at the GDR ChemBio conference although primarily focused on the intersection of art, chemistry, and blockchain technology, also served as a catalyst for broader discussions on the role of AI in research and education [39]. The use of AlphaFold in xSublimatio’s molecular design opened the door to these conversations, highlighting the growing importance of other more generic AI tools, such as ChatGPT [40], in scientific and academic contexts. ChatGPT, with its advanced language processing capabilities, is seen as a valuable tool for tasks ranging from literature review to hypothesis generation. Its ability to synthesize and articulate complex information has implications for accelerating research and fostering innovative approaches in various scientific fields.

In the educational sphere, the conference highlighted how AI tools like ChatGPT are revolutionizing teaching and learning. ChatGPT’s role in assisting with educational content, providing tutoring support has become increasingly evident. The discussion at the conference touched upon the importance of integrating these AI tools into educational strategies to enhance learning experiences and prepare students for an AI-augmented future. Furthermore, the impact of ChatGPT in the realm of research was a significant point of discussion. Its utilization in the writing and editing of academic articles represents a notable advancement. For instance, in the case of this very article, ChatGPT played a crucial role in harmonizing the writing styles of various authors, who come from diverse backgrounds and possess different writing proficiencies. This homogenization of style not only ensures coherence and readability but also facilitates a more seamless collaboration among researchers from various disciplines and regions.

The conference discussions also delved into the ethical considerations surrounding the use of AI in research and education. Issues such as data privacy, the potential for misuse, and the need for responsible AI governance were brought to the fore. These conversations highlighted the necessity for ongoing dialogue and policy development to ensure AI tools are used ethically and effectively.