Seven decades of exploring planetary interiors with rotating convection experiments

Alban Pothérat; Susanne Horn

doi:10.5802/crphys.233

Article de synthèse

Seven decades of exploring planetary interiors with rotating convection experiments
[Sept décennies d’exploration des intérieurs de planètes par les expériences de convection en rotation]

Alban Pothérat ¹ ; Susanne Horn ¹

¹ Centre for Fluid and Complex Systems, Coventry University, Mile Lane, CV1 2NL Coventry, UK

Comptes Rendus. Physique, Online first (2024), pp. 1-55.

Résumé
Abstract

Les intérieurs de toutes les planètes du système solaire sont constitués de couches internes, dont la plupart sont fluides. Quand ces couches sont sujettes à un gradient de température ou de composition chimique super-adiabatiques, un écoulement convectif s’installe qui transporte chaleur et moment angulaire. De plus, les planètes tournent extrêment vite. Ainsi, le processus-clé qui sous-tend l’évolution des planètes est la convection en rotation. Alors que les intérieurs de planètes sont eloignés et impropres à l’observation directe, les expériences de laboratoire présentent des modèles cohérents à même de guider notre compréhension et de complémenter les simulations numériques. Si nous parvenons à comprendre la mécanique des fluides des modèles de laboratoire, nous finirons peut-être par comprendre l’original complètement. Cependant, reproduire expérimentalement une convection en rotation pertinente pour les intérieurs de planètes présente une gageure en soi, ne serait-ce qu’au niveau de la modélisation de la gravité centrale d’une planète et de son gradient de température parallèle. Trois classes d’expériences distinctes sont apparues pour relever ce défi. Une première approche consiste à utiliser une autre force centrale, telle que la force de Coulomb. L’inconvénient est que ces forces sont typiquement plus faibles que la gravité ambiante et nécessitent donc d’aller dans l’espace. Une autre méthode implique de faire tourner le dispositif suffisamment vite pour que la force centrifuge dépasse et même remplace la gravité terrestre. Cette technique imite les conditions des regions équatoriales et à faible latitude d’une planète. Finalement, utiliser la véritable gravité terrestre alignée avec l’axe de rotation nous renseigne sur les régions polaires et à haute latitude. Ces expériences ont été perfectionnées au cours de plus de sept décenies. Nous parcourons ici leur évolution, depuis les premières visualisations des motifs au départ de la convection, en passant par les expériences à gravité centrale conduites à bord d’engins spatiaux, l’avènement de la vélocimétrie à ultrasons dans le métaux liquides, jusqu’aux dernières cartographies de champs de vitesse par méthodes optiques dans des écoulements de magnoconvection en rotation dans de l’acide sulfurique à l’intérieur d’aimants à champs fort. Nous montrons comment des concepts expérimentaux innovants couplés aux techniques expérimentales émergentes ont poussé notre compréhension des intérieurs de planètes et nous ont aidé à en dépeindre une image toujours plus détaillée et plus réaliste, en particulier du cœur liquide de la Terre.

Compléments :
Des compléments sont fournis pour cet article dans le fichier séparé :

crphys-233-suppl.pdf

The interiors of all the planets in the solar system consist of layers, most of which are made out of fluids. When these layers are subject to superadiabatic temperature or compositional gradients, turbulent convection takes place that transports heat and momentum. In addition, planets are fast rotators. Thus, the key process that underpins planetary evolution, the existence of dynamo action or lack thereof, the observable flow patterns, and much more, is rotating convection. Because planetary interiors are remote and inaccessible to direct observation, experiments offer crucial, physically consistent models capable of guiding our understanding and complementing numerical simulations. If we can fully understand the fluid dynamics of the laboratory model, we may eventually fully understand the original. Experimentally reproducing rotating thermal convection relevant to planetary interiors comes with very specific challenges, in particular, modelling the central gravity field of a planet that is parallel to the temperature gradient. Three distinct classes of experiments have been developed to tackle this challenge. One approach consists of using an alternative central force field such as the electric one. This comes with the caveat that these forces are typically weaker than gravity and require going to space. Another method entails rotating the device fast enough so that the centrifugal force exceeds and effectively supersedes Earth’s gravity. This mimics the equatorial and lower latitude regions of a planet. Lastly, insight into the polar and higher latitude regions is gained by using the actual lab gravity aligned with the rotation axis. These experiments have been continuously refined during the past seven decades. Here, we review their evolution, from the early days of visualising the onset patterns of convection, over central force field experiments in spacecraft, ultrasound velocity measurements in liquid metals, to the latest optical velocity mapping of rotating magnetoconvection in sulphuric acid inside high-field magnets. We show how innovative experimental design coupled with emerging experimental techniques has advanced our understanding of planetary interiors and helped us paint a more realistic, detailed picture of them, including Earth’s liquid metal outer core.

Supplementary Materials:
Supplementary material for this article is supplied as a separate file:

crphys-233-suppl.pdf

Reçu le : 2024-09-07
Révisé le : 2025-01-13
Accepté le : 2025-01-13
Première publication : 2025-02-25

DOI : 10.5802/crphys.233

Keywords: Rotating convection, Experimental fluid mechanics, Measurement techniques, Planetary interiors, Turbulent convection
Mots-clés : Convection en rotation, Méchanique des fluides exprérimentale, Techniques de mesure, Intérieurs de planètes, Convection turbulente

Affiliations des auteurs :

Alban Pothérat ¹ ; Susanne Horn ¹

¹ Centre for Fluid and Complex Systems, Coventry University, Mile Lane, CV1 2NL Coventry, UK

Licence :

CC-BY 4.0

Droits d'auteur : Les auteurs conservent leurs droits

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Alban Pothérat; Susanne Horn. Seven decades of exploring planetary interiors with rotating convection experiments. Comptes Rendus. Physique, Online first (2024), pp. 1-55. doi : 10.5802/crphys.233.

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